The Saka were a group of nomadic Eastern Iranian peoples who lived in the Eurasian Steppe and the Tarim Basin from the 9th century BC to the 5th century AD. The Saka were closely related to the Scythians, and both groups formed parts of the wider Scythian cultures. However, both groups have differing specific geographical and cultural traits. The Saka languages formed part of the Scythian phylum, a branch of the Eastern Iranian languages. Derived from the earlier Andronovo, Sintashta and Srubnaya cultures, the Saka were later influenced by the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Culture and Iron-Age East Asian genetic influx. The ancient Persians, ancient Greeks, and ancient Babylonians respectively used the names "Saka," "Scythian," and "Cimmerian" for all the steppe nomads. However, the name "Saka" is used specifically for the ancient nomads of the eastern steppe, while "Scythian" is used for the related group of nomads living in the western steppe. Prominent archaeological remains of the Sakas include Arzhan, Tunnug, the Pazyryk burials, the Issyk kurgan, Saka Kurgan tombs, the Barrows of Tasmola and possibly Tillya Tepe. In the 2nd century BC, many Sakas were driven by the Yuezhi from the steppe into Sogdia and Bactria and then into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent, where they became known as the Indo-Scythians. Other Sakas invaded the Parthian Empire, eventually settling in Sistan, while others may have migrated to the Dian Kingdom in Yunnan, China. In the Tarim Basin and Taklamakan Desert of today's Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, they settled in Khotan, Yarkand, Kashgar and other places.
The Sakas were the successors of the Bronze Age culture known as the Andronovo cultureand inhabited a large part of the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, its north, center, and south. Various ancient texts refer to the Saka differently. It is known that some of them settled in Mediain the seventh century BCE. These were the Cimmerians of Babylonian sources.In Achaemenid inscriptions,three groups of Sakas, corresponding to three confederations—the Sakā Tigraxaudā, the Sakā Haumavargā, and the Sakā Paradrayā (sakã tjaj taradrajã)—are mentioned. Despite the accumulation of consonants, tiresome to the eye, these names are quite intriguing. The first can be translated as ‘Saka in Pointed Hats’, but scholars' opinions diverge on the meaning of Sakā Haumavargā. In general, haoma is a plant that has a narcotic effect, which is much the same as Cannabis sativa or fly agaric. Some researchers claim that it refers to ‘Saka turning into wolves’ through the consumption of haoma. Others believe that ‘haumavargā’ means ‘preparing haoma’. Thus, the Sakā Haumavargā were well-known for their fondness for fly agaric and either indulged in the narcotic brew made from these mushrooms or, worse, turned into wolves after consuming it. Such occurrences, we must admit, are not uncommon even today. The most mundane of all turned out to be the representatives of the third group of the Sakas, the Sakā Paradrayā. They were simply the ‘Saka living beyond the river’. They were essentially identical to the Scythians, and ancient authors referred to the Sakas as Asian Scythians. While enumerating various Saka tribes, Herodotusmentions the tribe of Orthocorybantes, who seem to correspond to the Sakas in pointed hats or the Massagetae. In the fifth century BCE, the ‘Sakas in pointed hats’ and the Massagetae inhabited the lower reaches of the Syr Darya, the southern regions of Kazakhstan, and Jetisu, the southeast of present-day Kazakhstan. Herodotus also writes about the Amyrgians, believed to be Sakas, who were fond of the fly agaric brew. The Persians referred to one group of Sakas as the ‘Sakas beyond Sogdiana’ (‘parikani’ according to ancient authors). Their neighbors were the Saka haumavargā, who lived near the Pamir-Alay Mountains and in the Fergana Valley. The Iranians called their land Sakastan.
The Saka included groups who were part of the Zoroastrian and Aryan families of nations. They included the Chorasmi from Khairizem / Khvarizem / Khwarezm (Gk. Chorasmia), the Parthava (Parthians), the Dahi (Dahae) and the Sistani. The largest number of ancient Zoroastrian related ruins and artefacts, including a dakhma, a Zoroastrian burial tower known as a 'Tower of Silence', have been uncovered in Chorasmia / Khwarezm. The Dahi were one of the first five nations or people amongst whom Zarathushtra preached his message. The Parthava (Parthians) liberated Iran-Shahr from Macedonian rule and reconstructed the Zoroastrian scriptures, the Avesta that had been destroyed by Alexander. Sistan's heroes, Sam, Zal and Rustam, were the pahlavans, the strongmen and protectors of the imperial Iranian throne. Their stories occupy the largest sections in Ferdowsi's epic poem, the Shahnameh. For the main part, the traditional land of the Saka forms part of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan today. The people caught in this broad approximation were and are ethically very different: from light haired Europeans - to Mongolian-like peoples - to the Iranian-Aryans. Nor were all these people nomadic. The differences between the dwellers of the Ukrainian steppes, those who dwell in arid lands of Turkmenistan, and those who reside in the expanses of Mongolia are evident today even to the casual observer. The confusion between the Saka and Scythians in classical literature is understandable since many classical writers had to rely on third-hand information on which to base their accounts, and because some of the groups were only loosely organized as coherent communities - at least in the estimation of outsiders. Greeks and other Europeans rarely travelled through the Eurasian grasslands or east beyond Persia (Western Iran). The Hellenic authors wrote from their frame of reference. They were familiar with the characteristics of the Scythians. Unfortunately many modern writers are doing the same. Today, however, we have the benefit of a more comprehensive approach and a wide data base. Pliny sums up the difficulty faced by classical author in his Natural History, Book 6, Chapter 19, by saying, "Indeed, upon no subject that I know of are there greater discrepancies among writers, from the circumstance, I suppose, of these nations (Saka) being so extremely numerous, and of such migratory habits."
The Saka (known to Greeks as Scythians) emerged as a formidable nomadic confederation in the eastern Eurasian steppes during the early 1st millennium BCE. Chinese records from the Han Dynasty identify them as the Yunxing Zhi Rong (允姓之戎), a pastoralist group originally inhabiting the Hexi Corridor near Dunhuang. These formidable horsemen occupied a strategic position along the proto-Silk Road routes, controlling vast territories stretching from the Altai Mountains to the Pamirs. Archaeological evidence reveals their distinct animal-style art and advanced metallurgy, particularly in goldwork and weaponry. Their societal structure followed typical steppe patterns: decentralized tribes united under charismatic leaders, with an economy based on seasonal migration between highland pastures (summer) and sheltered valleys (winter). This mobility would prove crucial when external pressures forced their dramatic westward movement. Two competing theories explain the Saka exodus. Japanese scholars Maejima Shinji and Katō Kyūsaku emphasize military pressure from the expanding Qin state in China’s western frontier. As Qin rulers consolidated power around 700 BCE, their campaigns likely displaced the Saka from the Hexi Corridor. Chinese chronicles alternatively attribute the migration to conflicts with the Yuezhi, another powerful nomadic group mentioned in Zhang Qian’s reports. Western academia generally points to a “steppe domino effect” originating in Central Asia around 800 BCE. Climate shifts may have triggered conflicts between nomadic groups, creating a chain reaction of displacements. The Saka, caught in this turbulence, began moving along two primary routes:
– Northern Route: Through the Ili Valley and Chu River basin toward the Pontic-Caspian steppe
– Southern Route: Across the Pamirs into Kabul Valley (establishing the kingdoms of Kapisa, Xiuxun, and Juandu) 
Saka/Scythian Tribes
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