Mythologies of the Dyula People

The Dyula (Dioula or Juula) are a Mande ethnic group inhabiting several West African countries, including Mali, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Burkina Faso. Characterized as a highly successful merchant caste, Dyula migrants began establishing trading communities across the region in the fourteenth century. Since business was often conducted under non-Muslim rulers, the Dyula developed a set of theological principles for Muslim minorities in non-Muslim societies. Their unique contribution of long-distance commerce, Islamic scholarship and religious tolerance were significant factors in the peaceful expansion of Islam in West Africa. The Dyula spread throughout the former area of Mandé culture from the Atlantic coast of Senegambia to the Niger and from the southern edge of the Sahara to forest zones further south. They established decentralized townships in non-Muslim colonies that were linked to an extensive commercial network, in what was described by professor Philip D. Curtin as a "trading diaspora". Motivated by business imperatives, they expanded into new markets, founding settlements under the auspices of various local rulers who often permitted them self-governance and autonomy. Organization of dyula trading companies was based on a clan-family structure known as the lu - a working unit consisting of a father and his sons and other attached males. Members of a given lu dispersed from the savanna to the forest, managed circulation of goods and information, placed orders, and effectively controlled the economic mechanisms of supply and demand.

The name Dyula (also spelled Dioula, Jula, and Juula) has a number of distinct though interrelated meanings. In the first place, in Mande languages, the word Dyula refers specifically to a professional trader, especially one engaged in long-distance trade. More generally, the word refers to communities of Mande-speaking Muslims who settled along trade networks from Senegal to northern Ghana. Many such communities referred to themselves by other names, such as Maraka or Jakhanke, and specialized in Islamic scholarship as well as commerce. However, especially in parts of Burkina Faso and in northern Côte d’Ivoire Muslim Mande-speakers did identify themselves as Dyula, whether or not they were specifically engaged in trade. Côte d’Ivoire was home to the large trading towns of Kong, Bouna, and Bondoukou as well as smaller Dyula communities and was the center of the Dyula as an ethnic as opposed to simply a professional identity. More recently, the relative prosperity of southern Côte d’Ivoire in the colonial period and afterwards led to widespread migration from the north and from neighboring countries and led to the emergence of a new Dyula ethnicity, especially in urban areas. Civil conflict in Côte d’Ivoire over the past two decades has led to anti-Dyula xenophobia. Because of the multiple meanings of the term “Dyula,” there is no comprehensive overview. Perinbam 1980 is an excellent short introduction to the topic. The introductory chapters in Person 1968–1975 provide a thorough review of Dyula history, including trade and Islamic networks. Meillassoux 1971 is an excellent anthology of articles on West African trading networks, including Dyula. Launay 1982 focuses on Dyula social organization in historical perspective, from the 19th century to the development of new forms of Dyula ethnicity in urban Côte d’Ivoire.

The Dyula (Dioula or Juula) are a Mande ethnic group inhabiting several West African countries, including the Mali, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, and Burkina Faso. Characterized as a highly successful merchant caste, Dyula migrants began establishing trading communities across the region in the fourteenth century. Since business was often conducted under non-Muslim rulers, the Dyula developed a set of theological principles for Muslim minorities in non-Muslim societies. Their unique contribution of long-distance commerce, Islamic scholarship and religious tolerance were significant factors in the peaceful expansion of Islam in West Africa. The Dyula are an ethnic minority in north-central and northeastern Ivory Coast, in southeastern Mali, and southwestern Burkina Faso, roughly from 8° to 12° N and from 3° to 6° W, along the southern fringes of the savanna. Nowadays many Dyula are also to be found in major towns and cities of all three countries. The Dyula account for about 10 to 20 percent of the population of the areas they occupy. They number between 200,000 and 300,000. Since the term "dyula" is also used as a socioprofessional category, it is difficult to rely on census data for estimates, especially as many Dyula have migrated to large urban areas. "Dyula" is a Manding word typically referring to "traders" as a socioprofessional category, particularly to Muslim long-distance traders who speak one or another dialect of Manding. The name is used as an ethnic label by Manding-speaking minorities, particularly those living amid various Gur-speaking groups, such as the Senufo and Kulango. The Dyula speak dialects of Manding, a northern Mande language of the Niger-Congo Family. The Dyula dialects are very closely related to certain dialects of Bamana (or Bambara) and Maninka (or Malinke), all of which are mutually comprehensible.

Dyula, people of western Africa who speak a Mande language of the Niger-Congo language family. Most are Muslims, and they have long been noted as commercial traders. The Dyula were active gold traders as long ago as the time of the ancient African kingdom of Ghana. They flourished under the empire of Mali, when they provided a link between the gold-producing forestlands in the south and the trading network of the western Sudan and North Africa. Kola nuts were another important trade item. The Dyula were also skilled craftsmen. They began to disperse and settle in towns about the 16th century. In the mid-19th century some of these towns expanded into larger states, but they declined by 1900. Today the Dyula are settled in towns and villages in Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, and parts of Mali and Ghana. Some Dyula communities have become agricultural, but most remain active in commerce, at least during the dry season.

In many dialects of the Mande language, the word dyula means “trader.” Most Dyula people trace their origins back to the land of Manden, the heartland of the great medieval empire of Mali, along what is now the border of the modern nations of Guinea and Mali. Gold from Mali was transported across the Sahara Desert in exchange for rock salt mined in the Sahara. It was the search for new sources of gold that first led traders from Mali to what is now northern Ghana. Along with gold, they also began exporting kola nuts, which only grow in the rain forest region along the Atlantic Coast, but which became a prized item of luxury consumption in the interior of West Africa. Even after the decline of the Mali empire, these trade links between the desert, the grasslands, and the forest were maintained. Traders continued to move southwards towards the forest, settling in communities along the trade routes. Some of these trading communities established themselves as minority groups among peoples such as the Senufo, the Kulango, and the Abron, with very different languages and cultures from their own. These minority groups came to call themselves, very simply, Dyula—“traders.” Here, they continued to participate in the long-distance trade between the forest and the desert. Indeed, their words for “north” and “south” are kogodugu, literally, “the land of salt,” and worodugu, “the land of kola nuts.” However, they also specialized in producing and selling various luxury items, especially woven cloths, to their neighbors. Even nowadays, a Dyula village or neighborhood is easily identified by the number of its looms.

Dyula (or Jula, Dioula, Julakan ߖߎ߬ߟߊ߬ߞߊ߲) is a language of the Mande language family spoken mainly in Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast and Mali, and also in some other countries, including Ghana, Guinea and Guinea-Bissau. It is one of the Manding languages and is most closely related to Bambara, being mutually intelligible with Bambara as well as Malinke. It is a trade language in West Africa and is spoken by millions of people, either as a first or second language. Similar to the other Mande languages, it uses tones. It may be written in the Latin, Arabic or N'Ko scripts. Historically, Dyula ("jula" in the language) was not an ethonym, but rather a Manding language label literally meaning 'trader'. The term used to distinguish Muslim traders from the non-Muslim population living in the same area, mainly Senufo agricultors. It then became an exonym for Manding-speaking traders such as the Bambara or the Mandinka and their languages. At the same time, however, a process of ethnogenesis across the centuries led to some communities in modern towns like Bobo-Dioulasso, Odienné and Kong adopting the label as one of their ethnic identity. These communities speak varieties of Dyula with common traits that distinguish it from the lingua franca form of Jula that one hears in markets across much of Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire. Later, the term was also used for a simplified version of Bambara, which comes from Mali, mixed with elements of Maninka. It became a widely used lingua franca. Native speakers of Manding in the Ivory Coast use the pejorative term 'Tagbusikan' to refer to this simplified language, while they called their own language 'Konyakakan', 'Odiennekakan' or 'Maukakan'. The influx of millions of migrant workers from the Sahel further boostered the use of Dyula in the Ivory Coast due to the need of a lingua franca. Many Burkinabe learned Dyula while staying in the Ivory Coast and further disseminated it back home. Today, Dyula is used to at least some extent by 61% of the population of the Ivory Coast and by about 35% of the Burkinabe (mainly those living in the southern or western part of the country).

The name jula means "itinerant trader," and the Jula (AKA, Dyula) people are still well respected for their trading abilities. The trading posts established by the Jula for hundreds of years eventually morphed into market villages and cities. They have left their mark on West African history and economy. The Jula are the descendants of the Malinke (Mandingo), inheritors of the ancient Mali empire. Situated between the Arab world to the north and the black African nations to the south, Mali has always been the cultural crossroads of western Africa. The result is a cultural mix that the Jula contribute to through their music, dance, and beautiful jewelry. By the time the Mali Empire was at its peak in the 1300s, the Jula had made Mali their trade base for West Africa. They traded gold, millet, slaves, cola nuts and anything else of value. Later, the Maninka rulers of Mali began spreading Islam throughout the African plains, and the Jula became strong converts. Today most live along the trade routes of West Africa. Jula clans have settled in Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, and Mali. They speak Jula, a Mande language that belongs to the Nilo-Congo language family. Jula society is hierarchical and caste based. They live in clans, and the clan is the most important aspect of their lives. The people are fiercely loyal to their clans, defending them proudly. They express their history and devotion through the traditions of dance and storytelling. The father is the head of the family and inheritances are passed down from fathers to their sons. Older males possess the most power and influence. The Jula began settling in towns during the 1500s. Some founded their own independent villages; others chose to settle in larger towns for greater commercial opportunities. As a result, most Jula communities became politically subservient to the kings and chiefs of other ethnic groups. As merchants, it often benefited them to maintain good relationships with their neighbors. Among the Jula, there is generally a division of labor according to gender. Weaving, fighting, and studying Islam were traditionally male activities; while, spinning, cooking, and tending to the children were the responsibilities of the women. However, both men and women engaged in trade. The Jula still practice polygamy (multiple spouses) and youths are encouraged to marry within their own clans. They prefer marriages between cousins. Girls usually marry at age 16. It is surprising that nearly half of the population is under the age of 15 and few live beyond age 45. Therefore, the Jula have great respect for the elderly, especially if a man is an Islamic scholar. The fundamental moral principles of the Jula include obedience, honesty, and dedication to their people. Such precepts are motivated by a sense of human dignity.

The Jola or Diola (endonym: Ajamat) are an ethnic group found in Senegal, the Gambia, and Guinea-Bissau. Most Jola live in small villages scattered throughout Senegal, especially in the Lower Casamance region. The main dialect of the Jola language, Fogni, is one of the six national languages of Senegal. Their economy has been based on wet rice cultivation for at least one thousand years. This system has been characterized "one of the most significant examples of 'agrarian civilizations' in West Africa". However, the Jola probably reached the Lower Casamance region in the 14th century, assimilating the previous Bainuk people and their rice tradition. In colonial times, the Jola began to cultivate peanuts as a cash crop in the drier forests. The Jolas (Diula, Yola, Dyola) are a major ethnic group in southwestern Senegal. Their total population exceeds 700,000, with approximately 140,000 in the Lower Casamance area of Senegal, 500,000 more scattered through Senegal, and as many as 70,000 in Guinea Bissau and Gambia. Others live in Mali and Burkina-Faso.

In an August 2003 report on Côte d'Ivoire, Human Rights Watch (HRW) indicated that [HRW English version] "[t]he term 'Djoula' or 'Dioula' is actually a Senoufo word for trader [but that] it also refers to a small ethnic group from the northeast" (HRW Aug. 2003; see also AllAfrica 22 Oct. 2002; PANA 30 Mar. 2001; IRIN 2 May 2005). [IRIN English version] "Mostly Muslims" (ibid.; see also Encyclopedia of the Third World 1992, 917-918) and [translation] "traders by tradition" (Le Quotidien du Peuple 19 Apr. 2002), the Dioula from Côte d'Ivoire, like the Bambara, Mahou, Mandingue (Encyclopedia of the Third World 1992, 917) and Malinke (HRW Aug. 2003; Le Quotidien du Peuple 19 Apr. 2002), belong to the Mande group. However, HRW also explained in its report on Côte d'Ivoire that the term Dioula [HRW English version] "is most commonly used to refer to people of several ethnicities from northern Côte d'Ivoire, including Malinké and Senaphou, who are in fact not ethnic Dioula but may speak a colloquial form of the language" (Aug. 2003). The same report stated that [HRW English version] "[t]he pidgeon form of the Dioula language has become widely used by many Ivorians-whatever their origin-as the language of trade and commerce . . . [and that] [s]ome northerners view the use of the all-encompassing term as a pejorative". According to an information bulletin published by the United Kingdom's Immigration and Nationality Directorate, "the Dioula ethnic group was closely associated with both the MPCI [Mouvement patriotique de Côte d'Ivoire] and the RDR [Rassemblement des républicains]".

Most of the Dyula live along the trade routes of the Ivory Coast. Dyula clans have also settled in Ghana, Burkina Faso, Mali, and Guinea-Bissau. The Dyula of Ghana live along the trade routes of the central western border adjoining the Ivory Coast. The name dyula means "itinerant trader," and the Dyula are respected for their trading abilities. The Dyula are the descendants of the Malinke (Mandingo), inheritors of the ancient Mali empire. By the 1300's, Mande traders seeking gold reached the northern borders of Ghana, where they founded states to use as centers for gold trade. Later, the Maninka rulers of Mali began spreading Islam throughout the African plains, and the Dyula became strong converts. Since Ghana's independence from Great Britain in 1960, the country has experienced seven coups. The Dyula have contributed much to the rich mixtures of peoples and traditions that make up Ghanaian culture. The Dyula live in clans, and the clan is the most important aspect of their lives. The people are fiercely loyal to their clans, defending them proudly. They express their history and devotion through the traditions of dance and storytelling. The father is the head of the family and inheritances are passed down from fathers to their sons. Older males possess the most power and influence. The Dyula began settling in towns during the 1500's. Some founded their own independent villages; others chose to settle in larger towns for greater commercial opportunities. As a result, most Dyula communities became politically subservient to the kings and chiefs of other ethnic groups. As merchants, it benefited them to maintain good relationships with their neighbors.